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Environmental information systems
Forests are ecosystems dominated by trees, and their appearance varies depending on the climate zone, topography, soil type and management practices. They are important for biodiversity and society, providing resources such as wood and fibre, regulating the environment (e.g. purifying air, water and soil) and offering cultural benefits such as recreation, spirituality and aesthetics. A forest ecosystem can be defined at various scales, such as climate zone (e.g. boreal or temperate), tree species composition (e.g. beech forests), or management (e.g. natural forest ecosystems). Different definitions are used when measuring forest area. One commonly used definition is that of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
Main messages
Forest ecosystems vary depending on climate zone, site properties and management practices
Forest biodiversity is key for the deliverance of goods and services
The share of forest in EU27 is 33 to 39%, depending on the definition used and the measurement method
Measuring the forest area: Definition matters!
Forests can be defined in many ways to reflect their diversity worldwide and the diversity of human approaches to them.
Different definitions are linked to specific assessment methods and criteria, which means great caution is needed when comparing or combining data. A key distinction exists between forest as land cover, based on the physical state of the land observed at a given time, and forest as land use, which refers to the intended function of the land regardless of its current appearance. For example, recently harvested forest land may not be classified as forest in land cover terms but remains forest from a land use perspective.
One of the most widely used definition comes from the FAO-FRA, uses a combination of land use and land cover, and describes a forest as an area of land larger than 0.5 hectares, with trees that reach at least 5 meters in height and with a canopy cover (proportion of the forest covered by the vertical projection of the tree crowns) of more than 10%.
FAO-FRA explains that regeneration sites after harvesting, nurseries, forest roads and firebreaks, rubber-wood, cork oak and Christmas tree plantations, areas with bamboo and palms (if height and canopy cover criteria are met) etc. are considered forest area. It excludes tree stands in agricultural production systems such as in fruit plantations and agro-forestry systems, and trees in urban parks and gardens.
Despite the FAO-FRA definition, the criteria used to define forests may vary across countries, including minimum tree height, minimum crown cover, and minimum area size, as well as the estimation methods.
For example, recently harvested forest land may not be classified as forest in land cover terms but remains forest from a land use perspective.
INSERT chart titled: EEA member states use different criteria for defining forest, resulting in differences in forest area. The % represent the % of EEA countries that adopt the corresponding criteria.
Another example of a differing definition is provided by the CORINE Land Cover (CLC), which classifies land as forest if it has at least 75% tree cover. According to the CLC, the forest area of the EU27 is 135,637 ha, while using the FAO-FRA definition the corresponding figure is 159,231 ha, representing a difference of almost 15%.
However, using such thresholds could also have direct implication in the omission of deforestation forests: a forest area of 0,5 ha could lose up to 90% of its tree cover and still be defined as ‘forest.’ This unaccounted deforestation can add up, particularly in regions with high forest fragmentation or that are dominated by small-scale clearings, as is often the case in tropical countries.
Finally, this lack of consistency also makes comparisons between countries and across time periods less reliable and may undermine the robustness of climate reporting and international monitoring frameworks, which depend on harmonised data.
What is a forest
Curious about how forests are defined and measured across Europe? This document explores the complexities behind forest classification, land use, and cover assessments. It’s a must-read for anyone interested in environmental policy, forest management, or sustainable land use. Dive into the nuances of forest data and discover why definitions matter in shaping Europe's green future.
Nature, biodiversity and ecosystems
Forests are home to highly diverse ecosystems, with a rich variety of fauna and flora. Forest biodiversity provides a variety of ecosystem services that contribute to human well-being.
Forests can be classified according to their protection status (e.g. Natura 2000 sites), the status of flora and fauna (biodiversity) or the type of ecosystem (e.g. boral forests of beech forests).
Forest biological diversity refers to all life forms found in forests, such as trees, plants, animals, fungi and microbes, and their genetic variation. It is determined by various factors, including soils, climate, topography, management and disturbances that are either natural or induced by humans.
According to the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), forest ecosystems can be defined at a range of scales and are dynamic complexes of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their abiotic environment interacting as a functional unit, where trees are a key component of the system.
Status of biodiversity and forest ecosystems are related to forest health and soil conditions. Variation in tree species and vertical structure increase forest resilience which might soften impact of threats such as climate change, pests and diseases, drought and forest fires.
Forest and Climate
Forests are increasingly vulnerable to climate change, which threatens biodiversity and essential ecosystem services. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events are already affecting forest vegetation.
At the same time, forests help mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide. European forests act as a carbon sink, absorbing more CO₂ than they emit. However, the size of this sink fluctuates due to factors like storm damage, harvesting rates, and economic conditions.
The future capacity of forests to absorb carbon depends on forest type and site characteristics, forest management, climate impacts, and disturbance frequency. Although European forests absorbed about 10% of EU emissions between 1990 and 2022, the annual carbon sink is declining rapidly (The European forest carbon sink is declining: can we reverse the trend? - European Commission.)
Carbon emissions and removals from forests are tracked under the LULUCF sector, which includes biomass, deadwood, litter, and soils.
Forest and society
Forests hold multiple values for society, including instrumental values such as timber, recreation and purification; relational values such as cultural and emotional connections; and intrinsic values such as the inherent worth of species and ecosystems. To meet diverse societal needs, sustainable forest management must balance these values.
European forests provide essential ecosystem services, including renewable resources, air and water purification, and recreational spaces. As these services benefit various stakeholders, such as industry and landowners, forest governance should be inclusive and participatory.
Forests provide the raw materials for a wide range of wood-based products, such as timber for construction, fiber for textiles, paper, chemicals, and energy in the form of heat, electricity and fuel, as well as non-wood products like berries, mushrooms, cork, saps and resins, nuts, honey and wild meat. The growing demand, driven by the bioeconomy and climate goals, requires the sustainable management and efficient use of these resources. Wood is essential for advancing the circular and bio-economies.
Agroforestry is a promising land-use approach that integrates trees with crops and livestock and connects forest, food and biodiversity to a wide public. It enhances biodiversity, soil health, and water conservation, and can be adapted across Europe in various spatial and temporal arrangements.
Forest Management
Sustainable forest management systems are structured approaches that help forest owners and managers to achieve their goals while preserving forest ecosystem functions, carbon stocks and biodiversity, and mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change. European forests were historically heavily exploited for timber production, but more sustainable practices have been introduced since the 17th century to restore and maintain forest cover. Today, the multifunctionality of forests is increasingly recognised, encompassing benefits beyond timber, such as biodiversity and recreation. Modern forest management involves various techniques and activities, including regeneration and harvesting, which are tailored to the different functions and values of forests.
Regeneration refers to the establishment of forest stands. A variety of methods are employed in forest regeneration; the chosen practice depends on factors such as tree species selection, forest management objectives, and costs. Harvesting regimes involve interventions at maturity that open the canopy, improving wood quality and enabling the stand to regenerate and new trees to develop.
Forest Health
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Forest Soils
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